Política de Precios Ing. Andrea Barbaro Esta presentación es solo un complemento de la unidad. En ningún caso, exceptúa al alumno de la lectura de la bibliografía de la materia. Ing. Andrea Barbaro

Factores a considerar al fijar precios Factores internos Factores a considerar al fijar precios Factors to Consider When Setting Prices This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-1 on p. 303 and relates to the discussion on pp. 303-313. Decisiones de fijación de precios Factores externos Mercado meta

Política de Precios 1. Seleccionar el objetivo de fijación de precios 2. Estimar los costos 3. Determinar la demanda 4. Analizar los costos y ofertas de los competidores 5. Escoger un método de fijación de precios 6. Seleccionar el precio final

Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 303-304. Objetivos de marketing que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Supervivencia Maximización de utilidades actuales Objetivos de Fijación de Precios Marketing Objectives The overall marketing objectives that influence price: Survival. This can be the primary factor in setting price especially in marginal businesses or industries. Price is used to stay in business in hopes of making profits when conditions improve. Current Profit Maximization. This objective means the company is emphasizing short term results over long-run performance. Market-Share Leadership. This factor affects price when the company seeks the dominant market share. Low prices increase demand so that later volume creates profit. Product-Quality Leadership. This tends to push prices high. This pricing strategy may be linked to niching strategy in other discussions. Liderazgo en participación de mercado . Liderazgo en calidad de producto

Análisis de Costos que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 305-306. Análisis de Costos que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Costos totales Suma de los costos fijos y variables para un nivel de producción dado Costos variables Costos que sí varían en proporción directa al nivel de producción. Materias primas Costos fijos Costos que no varían con los niveles de ventas y producción Alquiler Costs Costs set the pricing floor that the company can charge for its product. Types of costs include: Fixed Costs (or overhead) are costs that do not vary much with production or sales levels. Variable Costs vary directly with the level of production. Total Costs are the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production. “Para fijar el precio en forma inteligente, la empresa necesita saber como varían sus costos, de acuerdo a los diferentes niveles de producción.”

Consideraciones de costos Costs Considerations This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-2 B on p. 308 relates to the discussion on pp. 306-309. Costo unitario al variar el nivel de producción por periodo Costs at Different Levels of Production Management must consider how costs will change at different levels of production as part of their overall demand management strategy. A key concept to this planning is the Short-Run Average Cost curve (SRAC) shown on the CTR. Use of SRAC comparisons help summarize and illustrate quickly the optimal level of production for a particular enterprise. The SRAC curves follow a larger Long-Run Average Cost curve (LRAC) that indicates the turning point where manufacturing economies of scale are overturned by the increased costs associated with managing and administering a larger workforce. Costo por unidad 1 2 3 SRAC 4 LRAC 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 Cantidad producida por día

La curva de la Experiencia Costos unitarios Tiempo

Determinación de la demanda Análisis estadístico para estimar interrelaciones Métodos para determinar curvas de demanda Experimentos de Precios Encuestas de precios

Curvas de demanda Demand Curves Precio Cantidad demandada por periodo This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-4 on p. 311 and relates to the discussion on pp. 310-312. Precio Cantidad demandada por periodo A. Demandaa inelástica - Casi no cambia con un cambio pequeño en el precio. P2 P1 Q1 Q2 P’2 P’1 B. Demandaa elástica - Cambia mucho con un cambio Price Demand Relationship A demand curve show the number of units the market will buy in a given time period at various prices. The price elasticity of demand illustrates how responsive demand will be to a change in price. Two concepts are important here: Inelastic Demand. If demand hardly changes with a small change in price, demand is inelastic. Elastic Demand. If a small change in prices changes demand greatly, demand is elastic. Discussion Note: The ethical issues involved in pricing products characterized by inelastic demand are often complicated and controversial. For example, many new drugs are extremely expensive to develop and market but may be the only treatment available for an illness. In other cases, relatively cheap drugs are sold for high prices under the same “must have” conditions. Also, the concept of induced demand, which characterizes both the medical and legal professions is a controversial issue. Induced demand refers to the fact that in these industries, the provider also determines the level of demand or product to be used. In both cases, those providers also set the price of their services. To make matters worse, consumers do not have price comparison information. For example, the WSJ reported heart by-pass operations for two hospitals within four miles of each other varying on price by over $20,000. And even if consumers have knowledge, in critical care situations they may not have time to exercise choice.

Análisis de costos y ofertas de la competencia “Para ello hay que analizar nuestra oferta con la de la competencia” Oferta Superior Oferta inferior Oferta Similar

Principales consideraciones al fijar precios. Precios de los competidores y otros factores internos y externos Percepciones de valor de los consumidores Costo del producto Límite superior de Px Límite inferior de Px

Métodos de Fijación de Precios Costo más Margen Precio de equilibrio (por utilidad meta) Basada en el valor percibido Por valor o económica Basado en la competencia Por tasa vigente Por licitación sellada

Análisis del punto de equilibrio Breakeven Analysis This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-6 on p. 315 and relates to the discussion on pp. 315-316. Trata de determinar el precio con el que la empresa saldrá a mano u obtendrá una utilidad 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 10 20 30 40 50 Ganancias totales Costo (miles de pesos) Utilidad ($200,000) Other Cost-Oriented Approaches Breakeven Analysis. Breakeven analysis utilizes an analysis of the company's costs in relation to units of the product produced and sold. This approach identifies the minimum pricing level the company's activities can support. Teaching Tip: You might ask students doing a term marketing project to include a break-even chart in their financial projections. Target Profit Pricing. Target profit pricing is a variation on break-even analysis that links price to profit objectives above total costs. Discussion Note: Target profit pricing is mathematically appealing but be sure students understand that its use in planning should accommodate the fact that increased prices decrease demand. Costo total Costo fijo Volumen de ventas (miles de unidades)

Precios basados en valor Value-Based Pricing This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-7 on p. 316 and relates to the discussion on pp. 316-318. Precios basados en costo Precios basados en valor Producto Costo Precio Valor Clientes Clientes Valor Precio Costo Producto Buyer-Based Approach Value-Based Pricing . This approach uses the buyer's perception of value as the key to pricing. Strategy under this approach utilizes non price mix variables to help set perceived value in the buyer's mind. As illustrated on the CTR, this approach is the reverse of the cost-based approach to pricing. The key is that the marketer must have an accurate view of what benefits and features consumer want and are willing to pay for in setting a specific value-pricing goal. Discussion Note: Toyota Motor company used a value-based approach on its lower end cars like the Tercel and the Corolla in the early 1980s. Once the value price was determined and profit per car objectives set, engineers and designers were challenged with the task of making the cost of production support those goals.

Selección del Precio final Para escoger el precio final tendrá que considerar: Influencia de los otros elementos del marketing mix. Impacto de precios sobre terceros. Estrategias de precios.

Estrategias de precios Para nuevos productos Adjustment Strategies - II This CTR corresponds to Table 11-2 on p. 334 and relates to the discussion on pp. 335-340. Estrategias de precios Ajustar precios de acuerdo al target del nuevo producto. Penetración en el mercado o descreme (para capturar el nivel más alto) Precios de Mezcla de Productos Descuentos y complementos La empresa busca un conjunto de precios, que produce utilidades máximas de la mezcla total. Psychological Pricing. A key component in psychological pricing is the reference price consumers carry in their mind when considering sellers prices. Promotional Pricing. Promotional prices are temporary reductions below list and sometimes below costs, used to attract customers: Loss leaders. These may be offered below costs to attract attention to an entire line. Special event. This type of pricing may be used during slow seasons. Cash rebates or low financing. These “extras” may bring in customers “on the brink” and help them to decide to finally purchase. Geographical Pricing. Several forms of geographical pricing are common: FOB-Origin. Free On Board has customer pay freight. Uniform Delivered. Here the company charges the same price to all. Zone. Zone uses different areas pay different prices on freight but all customers within the same area pay the same freight charges. Basing-Point. Under this system, all customers charged freight from a specified billing location. Freight-Absorption. Here the seller pays all or part of the shipping costs to get the desired business. International Pricing. Firms may charge the same price throughout the world, especially for high-ticket, high-tech products like jetliners. Or it may offer different prices based upon differing taxes, tariffs, distribution, and promotion costs. Ajustar el precio de lista, otorgando descuentos y complementos. Precios Segmentada Ajustar el precio básico para dar cabida a diferencias entre clientes, productos, lugares, etc.

Estrategias de precios Psicológica Adjustment Strategies - II This CTR corresponds to Table 11-2 on p. 334 and relates to the discussion on pp. 335-340. Estrategias de precios Promocional Ajustar precios para producir un efecto psicológico. Geográfica Reducir precios temporalmente para aumentar ventas a corto plazo. Psychological Pricing. A key component in psychological pricing is the reference price consumers carry in their mind when considering sellers prices. Promotional Pricing. Promotional prices are temporary reductions below list and sometimes below costs, used to attract customers: Loss leaders. These may be offered below costs to attract attention to an entire line. Special event. This type of pricing may be used during slow seasons. Cash rebates or low financing. These “extras” may bring in customers “on the brink” and help them to decide to finally purchase. Geographical Pricing. Several forms of geographical pricing are common: FOB-Origin. Free On Board has customer pay freight. Uniform Delivered. Here the company charges the same price to all. Zone. Zone uses different areas pay different prices on freight but all customers within the same area pay the same freight charges. Basing-Point. Under this system, all customers charged freight from a specified billing location. Freight-Absorption. Here the seller pays all or part of the shipping costs to get the desired business. International Pricing. Firms may charge the same price throughout the world, especially for high-ticket, high-tech products like jetliners. Or it may offer different prices based upon differing taxes, tariffs, distribution, and promotion costs. Internacional Ajustar precios considerando la ubicación geográfica de los clientes. Diferentes lugares y países Ajustar precios para mercados internacionales.

Estrategias de precios Precios Impares Precios de Prestigio P P Q Q

Bibliografía Marketing, versión para Latinoamérica , Kotler- Armstrong .Capítulos 10 y 11