Fijación de precios de productos: consideraciones y enfoques Marketing Octava edición Philip Kotler y Gary Armstrong Capítulo 10 Fijación de precios de productos: consideraciones y enfoques

Factores a considerar al fijar precios Factores internos Factores a considerar al fijar precios Factors to Consider When Setting Prices This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-1 on p. 303 and relates to the discussion on pp. 303-313. Decisiones de fijación de precios Objetivos de de posicio-namiento Mercado meta Factores externos

Factores internos que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Objetivos de marketing Factores internos que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Estrategia de mezcla de marketing Costos Consideraciones de organización

Objetivos de marketing que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 303-304. Supervivencia Precios bajos para cubrir costos variables y algunos costos fijos y seguir operando. Marketing Objectives The overall marketing objectives that influence price: Survival. This can be the primary factor in setting price especially in marginal businesses or industries. Price is used to stay in business in hopes of making profits when conditions improve. Current Profit Maximization. This objective means the company is emphasizing short term results over long-run performance. Market-Share Leadership. This factor affects price when the company seeks the dominant market share. Low prices increase demand so that later volume creates profit. Product-Quality Leadership. This tends to push prices high. This pricing strategy may be linked to niching strategy in other discussions. Maximización de utilidades actuales Escoger el precio que produzca la utilidad, flujo de efectivo o ROI más alto ahora. Objetivos de marketing Liderazgo en participación de mercado Precios lo más bajos posible para ser quien más participación tenga en el mercado. Liderazgo en calidad de producto Precios altos para cubrir los costos de una mayor calidad en el desempeño

Diseño y calidad de producto Estrategia de mezcla de marketing Variables de mezcla de marketing que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 304-305. Diseño y calidad de producto Estrategia de mezcla de marketing Marketing Mix Strategy Price must be considered in light of its role in support of the overall marketing mix. Price is one kind of information the consumer receives about the product. Price should consistently support the overall positioning strategy targeted by the marketing mix. Factores no de precio Distribución Promoción

Tipos de factores de costo que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 305-306. Costos totales Suma de los costos fijos y variables para un nivel de producción dado Costs Costs set the pricing floor that the company can charge for its product. Types of costs include: Fixed Costs (or overhead) are costs that do not vary much with production or sales levels. Variable Costs vary directly with the level of production. Total Costs are the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production. Costos fijos (Overhead) Costos que no varían con los niveles de ventas y producción Salarios de gerentes Renta Costos variables Costos que sí varían en proporción directa al nivel de producción. Materias primas

Consideraciones de costos Costs Considerations This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-2 B on p. 308 relates to the discussion on pp. 306-309. Costo unitario al variar el nivel de producción por periodo Costs at Different Levels of Production Management must consider how costs will change at different levels of production as part of their overall demand management strategy. A key concept to this planning is the Short-Run Average Cost curve (SRAC) shown on the CTR. Use of SRAC comparisons help summarize and illustrate quickly the optimal level of production for a particular enterprise. The SRAC curves follow a larger Long-Run Average Cost curve (LRAC) that indicates the turning point where manufacturing economies of scale are overturned by the increased costs associated with managing and administering a larger workforce. Costo por unidad 1 2 3 SRAC 4 LRAC 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 Cantidad producida por día

Factores externos que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Mercado y demanda Factores externos que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios Costos, precios y ofertas de competidores Otros factores externos Condiciones económicas Necesidades de revendedores Acciones del gobierno Cuestiones sociales

Distintos tipos de mercados Competencia pura Muchos compradores y vende- dores que afectan poco el precio Competencia monopolista Muchos compradores y vendedores operan en un intervalo de precios. Factores de demanda y mercado que afectan las decisiones de fijación de precios The Market and Demand This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 309-310. Distintos tipos de mercados The Market and Demand Types of Markets. Each presents distinct pricing challenges: Pure Competition - is characterized by many buyers and sellers to that no one agent affects pricing. Going rate pricing is the rule. Monopolistic Competition - consists of many buyers and sellers trading over a range of prices. Products can be differentiated in quality, features, or styles. Oligopolistic Competition - consists of few sellers each sensitive to the other's pricing and marketing strategies. Barriers to entry prohibit new sellers from entering the market. Pure Monopoly. This market consists of a single seller. The seller may by a government, private regulated monopoly, or unregulated monopoly. Pricing may be linked to other than cost or profit factors, including fear of competition entering or regulation. Consumer Perceptions of Price and Value. Buyers ultimately decide prices. Marketers must combine technical expertise with creative judgment and an awareness of buyers’ motivations. Competencia oligopolista Pocos vendedores, sensibles a sus estrategias de precios/marketing Monopolio puro Un solo vendedor

Curvas de demanda Precio Cantidad demandada por periodo Demand Curves This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-4 on p. 311 and relates to the discussion on pp. 310-312. Precio Cantidad demandada por periodo A. Demanda inelástica - Casi no cambia con un cambio pequeño en el precio. P2 P1 Q1 Q2 P’2 P’1 B. Demanda elástica - Cambia mucho con un cambio Price Demand Relationship A demand curve show the number of units the market will buy in a given time period at various prices. The price elasticity of demand illustrates how responsive demand will be to a change in price. Two concepts are important here: Inelastic Demand. If demand hardly changes with a small change in price, demand is inelastic. Elastic Demand. If a small change in prices changes demand greatly, demand is elastic. Discussion Note: The ethical issues involved in pricing products characterized by inelastic demand are often complicated and controversial. For example, many new drugs are extremely expensive to develop and market but may be the only treatment available for an illness. In other cases, relatively cheap drugs are sold for high prices under the same “must have” conditions. Also, the concept of induced demand, which characterizes both the medical and legal professions is a controversial issue. Induced demand refers to the fact that in these industries, the provider also determines the level of demand or product to be used. In both cases, those providers also set the price of their services. To make matters worse, consumers do not have price comparison information. For example, the WSJ reported heart by-pass operations for two hospitals within four miles of each other varying on price by over $20,000. And even if consumers have knowledge, in critical care situations they may not have time to exercise choice.

¿Qué es la fijación de precios de costo más margen y por qué se usa tanto? Cost-Plus Pricing This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 314. Instructor’s Note: The remaining CTRs and Notes for this chapter cover the cost-based, value-based, and competition-based approaches to pricing. Suma de un sobreprecio estándar al costo del producto Quienes venden tienen más certeza respecto de los costos que respecto de la demanda Minimiza la competencia de precios Cost-Plus Pricing Cost-Plus Pricing consists of adding a standard markup to the cost of the product. Markups vary widely across different industries. Cost-plus simplifies pricing strategy and covers costs but ignores market demand factors. Reasons for cost-plus pricing popularity include: Certainty. Sellers are more certain of their costs than they are about demand. This approach simplifies pricing. Minimize Price Competition. When all firms in the industry use this method, prices tend to be similar and price competition is minimized. Perceived Fairness. Cost-plus pricing ensures a profit for sellers for their value-added activities and does not take advantage of consumers when demand is greater. Discussion Note: You might have to discuss macroeconomic concepts to explain to students why cost-plus pricing isn’t the best approach. The idea that supply and demand balance in a dynamic and impersonal marketplace may require a leap of faith abstraction most students aren’t willing to make. Se percibe como más justa para quienes compran y quienes venden

Análisis de equilibrio (utilidades meta) Breakeven Analysis This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-6 on p. 315 and relates to the discussion on pp. 315-316. Trata de determinar el precio con el que la empresa saldrá a mano u obtendrá una utilidad meta 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 10 20 30 40 50 Ganancias totales Costo (miles de dólares) Other Cost-Oriented Approaches Breakeven Analysis. Breakeven analysis utilizes an analysis of the company's costs in relation to units of the product produced and sold. This approach identifies the minimum pricing level the company's activities can support. Teaching Tip: You might ask students doing a term marketing project to include a break-even chart in their financial projections. Target Profit Pricing. Target profit pricing is a variation on break-even analysis that links price to profit objectives above total costs. Discussion Note: Target profit pricing is mathematically appealing but be sure students understand that its use in planning should accommodate the fact that increased prices decrease demand. Utilidad meta ($200,000) Costo total Costo fijo Volumen de ventas (miles de unidades)

Precios basados en valor Value-Based Pricing This CTR corresponds to Figure 10-7 on p. 316 and relates to the discussion on pp. 316-318. Precios basados en costo Precios basados en valor Producto Costo Precio Valor Clientes Clientes Valor Precio Costo Producto Buyer-Based Approach Value-Based Pricing . This approach uses the buyer's perception of value as the key to pricing. Strategy under this approach utilizes non price mix variables to help set perceived value in the buyer's mind. As illustrated on the CTR, this approach is the reverse of the cost-based approach to pricing. The key is that the marketer must have an accurate view of what benefits and features consumer want and are willing to pay for in setting a specific value-pricing goal. Discussion Note: Toyota Motor company used a value-based approach on its lower end cars like the Tercel and the Corolla in the early 1980s. Once the value price was determined and profit per car objectives set, engineers and designers were challenged with the task of making the cost of production support those goals.

Precios basados en competencia Fijación de precios Precios basados en competencia Competition-Based Pricing This CTR relates to the discussion on pp. 318-319. Tasa vigente Se fijan los precios con base en lo que están cobrando los competidores. Competition-Based Approach Going-Rate Pricing. This approach bases price largely on what competitors charge for their products. This approach is popular in markets where demand elasticity is difficult to measure. Sealed-Bid Pricing. This approach involves competition between sellers attempting to under price each other while still covering costs. Winning a sealed bid contract requires careful estimation of competitor's costs and likely profit margins to bid successfully. This approach is common in bidding for government contracts. Teaching Tip: You might consider giving students an out of class assignment to obtain bids on one or more projects from cooperating vendors in your area. For example, a two-car garage pricing might vary by 100% among three contractors in a sealed bid. Licitación sellada Se fijan los precios con base en lo que se cree que los competidores cobrarán. ? ?