Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Teoria de Piaget del Desarrollo Cognitivo Théorie de Piaget du Cognitive Development (Aportaciones fundamentales y críticas) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Introducción La presentación de un resumen de la teoría clásica de Piaget en formato ppt es de indudable interés para profesores y alumnos de psicología evolutiva en diferentes campos y muy especialmente en el mundo educativo. Los textos que se presentan a continuación son una recopilación, selección y organización de más de 30 archivos en formato ppt (power point) en lengua castellana, inglés y francés. Por este motivo el lector encontrará fichas en los 3 idiomas. Todos ellos proceden de fuentes propias y de internet. Estos últimos son de acceso público. En todo momento se ha buscado el rigor y la exhaustividad de las presentaciones. Por esta razón, el lector encontrará algún material redundante pero con presentación diferente. Pensamos que el lector como miembro de la comunidad intelectual puede sugerirnos nuevas fichas o detectar errores en las existentes, debido a lo cual nos gustaría que nos enviase los comentarios y sugerencias, compartiendo con nosotros la ampliación de esta presentación.
El Modelo Piagetiano y su planteamiento epistemológico Factores que determinan el desarrollo según Piaget (1966) 1. Biológicos. Ej: Maduración del sistema nervioso 2. Factores de equilibración y autorregulación. Ej: Tendencia a la equilibración. Formas secuenciales en la coordinación general de las acciones de los individuos que interactuan con su medio físico. 3. Factores sociales generales (experiencia física y social). Ej: Interacciones entre individuos 4. Transmisión educativa y cultural Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Describe intellectual development according to Piaget, including a discussion of both the process and the stages of development. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world” Developed by W. Huitt, 1999 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology. He was a child prodigy who published his first article in a refereed journal at the age of 11. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a “genetic epistimologist.” He was mainly interested in the biological influences on “how we come to know.” Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory Piaget believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do “abstract symbolic reasoning.” Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory Piaget's views are often compared with those of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who looked more to social interaction as the primary source of cognition and behavior. This is somewhat similar to the distinctions made between Freud and Erikson in terms of the development of personality. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory While working in Binet’s test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He noticed that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older children. This suggested to him that the younger children were not less knowledgeable but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers because they thought differently. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory This implies that human development is qualitative (changes in kind) rather than quantitative (changes in amount). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory There are two major aspects to his theory: the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability. Piaget’s training as a biologist influenced both aspects of his theory. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Process of Cognitive Development Schemas: Assimilation and Accommodation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Schemas As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (Piaget described this ability as intelligence.) Behavior is controlled through mental organizations called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Schema example: Object permanence Object permanence. Develops in Substage 4 of the sensorimotor stage (Siegler, p. 34) roughly 8-12 months Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Schema example: Volume permanence Skill acquired during the concrete operational period, roughly 6/7 to 11/12 years. What allows the child to get this right is that he/she understands reversible operations. (object properties are conserved over certain types of transformations, Siegler, p. 45). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Where do schemas come from? Maturationist hypothesis: they are preprogrammed and simply develop Behaviorist hypothesis: no mental structures are necessary, all learning is the forming of associations Piaget rejected both, and devoted his career to researching the developmental origins of each schema Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment (equilibration). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt: assimilation and accomodation. Both of these processes are used thoughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development The process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Assimilation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Example: an infant uses a sucking schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. Assimilation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development The process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Accomodation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Example: the infant modifies a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. Accomodation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Assimilation and Accommodation Development is driven by a continuing equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation Connection to Freud noted by Piaget: Assimilation is the “pleasure principle,” the id Accommodation is the “reality principle,” the superego Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Schemas: Assimilation and Accommodation A schema “always includes both assimilation and accommodation” …but in different ratios, resulting in: imitative, ludic, or adaptive schemas Intelligence is the equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation Imitative schemas: accommodation is dominant Ludic schemas (play): assimilation is dominant Adaptive schemas: the most advanced, equilibrium Chapter 5 of Play, dreams documents the development from sensorimotor schemas to symbolic schemas, through a child’s active interaction, applying prior schemas to the environment (through either assimilation or accommodation). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Assimilation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Accommodation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Play as Assimilation and Accommodation The child at pretend often imposes a schema on the world (assimilation) Children at play also imitate something they’ve observed or repeat a past activity (accommodation) Play contributes to development because of this tension between assimilation and accommodation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development As schemes become increasingly more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviors) they are termed structures. As one's structures become more complex, they are organized in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to specific). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Process of Cognitive Development Symbolic schemes – internal mental symbols that one uses to represent aspects of experience. Cognitive operation – an internal mental activity that one performs on objects or thoughts. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
How We Gain Knowledge: Piaget's Cognitive Processes (cont.) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
¿Cómo se aprende?: Perspectiva genético-cognitiva del aprendizaje - Desarrollo Aprendizaje Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje Dinámicos y cambiantes Esquemas ¿Cómo conocemos y aprendemos? Acción Estadios o niveles de competencia cognitiva Dllo Cognitivo Maduración Construcción de aprendizajes 2. Equilibración y desequilibración Aprenziaje por descubrimiento Sensoriomotriz, Preop…. Asimilación y acomodación a través de esquemas 1. Factores biológicos Asimilamos mediante esquemas los objetos y acomodamos los esquemas a los objetos Si el sujeto es consciente de que no puede asimilar el objeto nuevo entonces se produce desequilibrio cognitivo y aparecen esquemas nuevos Un conejo puede asimilar una col pero una col no puede asimilar a un conejo Ej: El niño simbólico da vida propia a los objetos inanimados Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
La relevancia de la obra de Piaget: el autor Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget A radical claim: Piaget didn’t really care about children Piaget cared about basic philosophical questions The study of developing children allows an empirical evaluation of philosophical questions We think of Piaget primarily as a developmental psychologist. BUT Piaget only USED children to accomplish a more profound philosophical goal. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Philosophical Context Where does knowledge come from? Behaviorists are empiricists—all knowledge derives from experience The rationalists reject empiricism and argue that some knowledge is innate or a priori: it does not require experience Kant’s synthesis proposed a priori basic categories Piaget proposed that these basic categories are not innate but are learned, but not in the way that behaviorists believed Behaviorism: Learning is associationist, continuous, linear Kant: "Concepts without percepts are empty; percepts without concepts are blind." The contrast with associationism is that once a child has successfully constructed a fundamental schema—such as number, equivalence, or conservation—the child’s thought is fundamentally transformed; the presence of that new schema then influences the manner in which the child apprehends the world from that point forward. Development is not linear; it proceeds in stepwise, staged fashion. Piaget’s experiments demonstrated that perception was influenced by the cognitive schemas of the child. Thus perception was not unmediated by thought, as empiricist associationism claimed; rather, perception was foundationally guided by the categories of thought. It was in this limited sense that Piaget was a neo-Kantian. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Key Influences: Biology Piaget’s degrees were in biology The influence of Darwin: development proceeds in stages Piaget’s central question: How did human cognition evolve from lower animals? Photo of Charles Darwin. Conceptions of development as staged derive from 19th century biological thought, and Piaget was always explicit about the biological motivations behind his theory (Messerly, 1996). Piaget’s degrees were in the biology of mollusks, and even late in his career, Piaget said that schemas “have essentially a biological meaning, in the sense that the order of the stages is constant and sequential. Each stage is necessary for the following one” (1971b, p. 7). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Cognitive development Range of topics studied byPiaget Infancy - adolescence perception memory space time causality moral judgment play dreams imitation geometry number reasoning science consciousness possibility and necessity chance physics Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget (1896 - 1980) has had the greatest influence on developmental psychology to date this is partly to do with the enormity of output…. JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) Number of publications (excluding translations) and span of writing career 50 100 150 200 Books Articles Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2yrs) Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs) Stage 3: Concrete Operations (7-11yrs) Stage 4: Formal Operations (11-on) Invariant developmental sequence! Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Birth to nearly 2 years Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) Object permanence Stranger anxiety About 2 to 6 years About 7 to 11 years About 12 through adulthood Preoperational Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning Pretend play Egocentrism Language development Concrete operational Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Conservation Mathematical transformations Formal operational Abstract reasoning Abstract logic Potential for moral reasoning Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2yrs) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Nos ubicamos en el sujeto. Pautas motrices Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage (Infancy) Sub Age (M) Description 1 0 – 1 ½ Reflex schemas exercised 2 1 ½ – 4 Primary circular reactions 3 4 – 8 Secondary circular reactions 4 8 – 12 Coordination of secondary circular reactions 5 12 – 18 Tertiary circular reactions 6 18 – 24 Beginning of symbolic representation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage (Infancy) Sub Age (M) Description 1 0 – 1 ½ Reflex schemas exercised: Involuntary rooting, sucking, grasping, looking 2 1 ½ – 4 Primary circular reactions: Repetition of personal actions that in themselves are pleasurable (e.g., blowing bubbles) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Sensorimotor Substages Description 1 Birth – 1 month Infants begin to modify the reflexes with which they are born to make them more adaptive. 2 1 – 4 months Infants begin to organize separate reflexes into larger behaviors, most of which are centered on their own bodies. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage (Infancy) Sub Age (M) Description 3 4 – 8 Secondary circular reactions: Dawning awareness of the effects of one’s own accidental actions on environment, and that extended actions can produce interesting change in the environment 4 8 – 12 Coordination of secondary circular reactions: Combining schemas to achieve a desired effect (inten-tionality; early problem solving) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Sensorimotor Substages Description 3 4 – 8 months Infants becoming increasingly interested in the world around them. By the end of this substage, object permanence, the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view, typically emerges. 4 8 – 12 months During this substage, children make the A-Not-B error, the tendency to reach to where objects have been found before, rather than to where they were last hidden. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Infant does not track the movement of the train in the tunnel, is happy to see the train again, but is not surprised that it is now a different color or shape. Lack of Representation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Sensorimotor Substages Description 5 12 – 18 months Toddlers begin to actively and avidly explore the potential uses to which objects can be put. 6 18 – 24 months Infants become able to form enduring mental representations. The first sign of this capacity is deferred imitation, the repetition of other people’s behavior a substantial time after it occurred. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years): Coordinating Sensory Inputs and Motor Capabilities Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
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Algunas capacidades del niño sensoriomotor La adquisición de la noción de objeto permanente, como mecanismo de adaptación a la realidad, ha sido una de las más estudiadas en la psicología del niño menor de dos años. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The key elements of active construction : adaptation Adaptation is when these two forces are in equilibrium This results in the emergence of a new behavioural schema…. A sensorimotor schema is a behaviour built up from progressive equilibration of assimilation and accommodation A well-known example of schema elaboration is searching for a hidden object This is known as the development of the Object Concept This development illustrates how the logic of transformations is first acquired through the active construction of space Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Object Permanence Knowledge that an object continues to exist independent of our seeing, hearing, touching, tasting or smelling it! Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Estadios del Desarrollo de la noción de Objeto Permanente (Piaget) El bebé intenta seguir con dificultad el movimiento del objeto y no busca los objetos que han sido ocultados a su vista. (0-2) El bebé sigue la trayectoria del objeto y se orienta con respecto al lugar donde desaparece de su vista pero no busca los objetos que han sido ocultados a su vista . (2-4) El bebé alcanzará el objeto cuando se oculte parcialmente de su vista. (4-8) El bebé alcanzará el objeto cuando se oculte totalmente a su vista, pero cometerá un error característico: busca siempre el objeto donde desapareció por primera vez, aunque se lo escondamos varias veces a su vista. (8-12) El bebé alcanzará el objeto en el último lugar donde despareció de su vista pero no es capaz de representarse las trayectorias ocultas. No busca el objeto si lo escondemos sin que lo vea (12-18) Finalmente el niño es capaz de representarse la trayectoria de los objetos escondidos. Por lo tanto, los busca aunque no haya visto desparecerlos. (18-24) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Object Permanence – knowledge that an object continues to exist independent of our seeing, hearing, touching, tasting or smelling it! Stage 1 and 2 – Tracks, then ignores Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The stages of the object concept Schema development during the stages of the object concept The key stages are marked by a simple adaptive schema for finding an object AND a limitation on this schema This is overcome once the behaviour is so well adapted that ‘new’ information can be assimilated e.g. 4 - 8 months (3rd stage): “out of sight out of mind” Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The stages of the object concept contd. 8-12 months (4th stage): the ‘place’ error Space does not yet have an independent construct in which relocation could exist Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The stages of the object concept contd. What the child achieves in the first year of lfe is a concept of a space that is independent of him/her And that objects can undergo reversible operations in this space Learning the nature of reversibility at a practical level Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The stages of the object concept contd. The final stages of the sensorimotor period mark difficulties with mentalising actions At the 5th stage, the infant has a problem with invisible displacements This is the first demand on the child’s representation of a transformation... 12-18 months (5th stage) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The end of the 6th stage and the beginning of symbolisation At the 6th and final stage of this period, the child starts to represent actions symbolically This not only allows him to track invisible displacements but also to start to have ‘knowledge’ independent of actions… It is at this stage that imitation and ‘pretend’ representations start 18 -24 months (6th stage): The transition to representational thought “In general terms it can be said that the child has become capable of directing his search by means of representation” Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The physics domain : object permanence After Piaget a wave of new evidence suggested that infants DO represent an occluded object even if they do not reach for it recent evidence comes from Baillargeon and Spelke - see page 75) The new experiments display ‘impossible’ events and measure selective looking time Infants well below ‘permanence’ age (i.e. 3.5 months) show a sensitivity to an impossible event based on the concept of an occluded object Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
From sensorimotor to pre-operational thought The final stages of the object concept see in the beginning of the symbol function in children This was thought by Piaget to allow the crucial ‘interiorisation of action’ All subsequent stages are now seen to be developments of a new symbol-based system that replaces the old sensorimotor one Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget: Structures and operations How is knowledge represented ? This is the structuralist aspect of Piaget’s theory Good examples in Early Growth of Logic Child’s Construction of Number Aspects of Piaget’s structruralism The interactions at the sensorimotor level contain an inherent logic This logic is based on properties like identity (same object/different place)and reversibility (A to B is reversed by B to A) The logic inherent in action is recovered at an explicit mental level through the subsequent stages Stability at the operational level is achieved when thought is governed by this logic and it becomes explict Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Estudios posteriores que modifican los planteamientos de Piaget Baillargeon’s Object permanence task Intermodel Perception (Spelke) Infant Arithmetic? Rational Behavior Infant Categorizing Growth of Memory Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn Newborns’ Learning and Memory It is not clear if Piaget’s inference is accurate. Infants who are tested differently show signs of having a notion of object permanence earlier than Piaget believed was possible. Infants seem to have a grasp of physical laws and can distinguish possible from impossible events (at least their reactions seem to indicate that they do.) They may also have a grasp of simple numerical concepts. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Tarea de Baillargeon sobre el Objeto permanente La investigación de Baillargeon sugiere que los bebés almacenan más conocimieinto sobre el objeto y sus propiedades de lo que planteaba inicialmente la teoría de Piaget. El bebé de 3,5 meses mostraba sorpresa ante el evento imposible y no ante el posible. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Precocious Infants? Infants 3½ months old dishabituated (i.e., surprised, looked longer) when screen appeared to pass through the place where box had been located Seemed to indicate reasoning about an impossible event Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Baillargeon et al., 1987
Reversing the Experiment However, when habituated to the impossible event first and then tested on the possible event, the babies stared more than twice as long at this possible event! In essence, they looked longer at the novel events, whether possible or impossible. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Cohen et al., 2000
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Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure 10.9 Mean looking times of 6- and 8-month-old infants after they had watched either possible or impossible events. (From Baillargeon, 1986) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Intermodel Perception Infants held two rings, one in each hand, under a cloth that prevented them from seeing the rings or their own bodies. For some infants the rings were connected by a rigid bar and therefore moved together. For others the rings were connected by a flexible cord and therefore moved independently. All the infants were allowed to hold and feel just one or the other type of rings until they had largely lost interest (habituated). They were then shown both types of rings. The babies looked longer at the rings that were different from those they had been exploring with their hands. Streri & Spelke, 1988 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Aritmética en bebés Los bebés de 4 meses observan durnante más tiempo los eventos imposibles que los posibles Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Cognitive Development Baby Mathematics Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992) 1. Objects placed in case. 2. Screen comes up. 3. One object is removed. 4. Possible outcome: Screen drops, revealing one object. drops, revealing two object. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Rational Behavior In this experiment, infants were shown a small circle repeatedly jumping over a barrier to get to another circle (a). After they had habituated to this event, the obstacle was removed. In subsequent tests, the infants looked longer if the circle repeated its familiar jumping action (b) (which was not a reasonable behavior since the barrier was no longer there) than if it took a novel, but more efficient, straight-line route (c). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Infant Categorizing Infants (3 months) shown a sequence of pictures of cats were surprised when they saw a picture of a dog, suggesting that they were sensitive to the category of cats Similarly, 3- to 4-month-olds, after having been shown a series of pictures of mammals, looked longer at pictures of non-mammals and furniture than at a picture of a new mammal Eimas & Quinn, 1994 Behl-Chadha et al., 1995 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Infant Categorizing After three 15-minute sessions, each with a different-color A block, a 3-month-old baby will kick the mobile with yet a fourth color added. But if a new shape is inscribed on the blocks used in the fourth session (e.g., B’s), the baby will not kick, indicating that the baby has formed a category and remembered prior experience Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Conceptual Categories Babies (7 months) treated plastic toy birds and airplanes, which are perceptually similar, as if they were members of the same category Babies (9 -11 months) treated toy airplanes and birds as members of conceptually different categories, despite the fact that they looked very much alike Mandler & McDonough, 1993 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Growth of Memory Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Growth of Memory In one study (Rovee-Collier et al.), a group of 3-month-old babies were trained to activate a mobile by kicking. They then let an entire month elapse before putting the babies into the experimental situation again. They knew that this was more than enough time for the babies to forget their training. However, 1 day before being retested, the 3-month-olds were shown the mobile as a reminder (without allowing them to kick). The next day, these infants started kicking as soon as the ribbon was tied to one of their legs. The mere sight of the mobile a day earlier seemed to remind the babies of what they had learned 1 month earlier. What might be the educational implications? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Relationship with the Social World Imitation Wariness New Relationships
Deferred Imitation (Evidence of Recall) Infants move from relying on implicit memory (recognition) to explicit memory (recall) For example, infants will imitate live models, as well as actions that they have seen on television Infants who watch a televised model on one day will reproduce the model’s behavior 24 hours later (Meltzoff, 1988) What might be an educational implication? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Wariness (begins at 6-9 months) Infants who are exposed to something new – even a spoonful of cereal from a stranger – display characteristic wariness Another evidence of recall Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Indicators of New Social Relationships Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky) Assistance provided by adults goes just slightly beyond the child’s current competence; helps child learn new behaviors Attachment Seek to be near their primary caregivers and show distress when they are separated, happy when reunited Secondary Intersubjectivity Primary: face-to-face communication (e.g., social smiling) Secondary: shared communication that refers to objects beyond themselves (e.g., looks when mother points) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Indicators of New Social Relationships Social Referencing Tendency to look to the caregiver for an indication of how one should feel and act (girls will do this more than boys) Language Development Comprehension: understands words for highly familiar objects (6 months); identifies phrases (8-9 months) Babbling: Vocalizing that includes consonant/vowel repetitions (7 months) Jargoning: Babbling with stress and intonation of actual utterances (12 months) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure 10.4 Infants pay more attention to faces than to other patterns. These results suggest that infants are born with certain visual preferences. (Based on Fantz, 1963) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development El estadio preoperatorio, representacional y simbólico (2-7) 1 – Substadio preconceptual (2-4) 2 – Subestadio intuitivo (4-7) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Emergence of symbolic thought Centration Egocentrism Lack the concept of conservation Animism Artificialism These are speaker notes Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
La descripción piagetiana del pensamiento preoperatorio Abarca de los 2 a los 6-7 años. No es un nivel estructural propiamente dicho, sino un estadio de preparación para la estructura operatoria. Acciones interiorizadas Intuiciones Esquemas representacionales Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Características del pensamiento preoperatorio (I) Centración: atender de forma exclusiva a un único aspecto de la realidad, ignorando otros. Intuitivo: tendencia a dejarse llevar por la apariencia perceptiva de los objetos. Estatismo: tendencia a fijarse exclusivamente en los estados finales, ignorando las transformaciones Irreversibilidad: incapaces de rehacer mentalmente la secuencia de acciones de un proceso para devolver un objeto o situación a su estado inicial Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Características del pensamiento preoperatorio (II) Razonamiento transductivo: establecer conexiones asociativas entre las cosas, razonando de lo particular a lo particular. Egocentrismo: pensamiento realista centrado en el propio punto de vista. Animismo: tendencia a atribuir vida a objetos inanimados Fenomenismo: Establecer relaciones causales entre fenómenos que se dan próximos. Finalismo:Atribuir causas a todo. Artificialismo: Todo es obra del hombre Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Preoperational Stage: 2-7 Years, Preconceptual Period (2-4 Years) A. Accomplishments 1. Symbolic Function Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Preoperational Stage: 2-7 Years, Preconceptual Period (2-4 Years) A. Accomplishments 1. Symbolic Function 2. Begin Pretend Play Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The Preconceptual Period (2 to 4 Years of Age) of the Preoperational Stage Emergence of symbolic thought and play Representational insight is in place by 2.5 years. Dual representation (ability to think about an object in two different ways at the same time) is in place by 3 years of age. Preconceptual reasoning is primitive by adult standards. Children display animism (a willingness to attribute life and life-like qualities to inanimate objects) Children display egocentrism (a tendency to view the world from one's own perspective and to have difficulty recognizing another person's point of view) Children not yet proficient at dual encoding Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Emergence of symbolic thought and play Dual representation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Development of Make-Believe Play Play becomes detached from associated real-life conditions (a block can be a telephone) The way the child as self participates in play changes with age (less egocentric) Make-believe play gradually includes more complex scheme combinations (appearance of sociodramatic play) Play becomes detached from associated real-life conditions. Around age 2 begin to pretend with less realistic toys. During third year, can make-believe without object…imagine objects and events The way the child as self participates in play changes with age. At first make-believe play is directed toward self only…feeding self, etc. Child later becomes detached participant who makes the doll feed itself. Make-believe play gradually includes more complex scheme combinations. Combine drinking with pouring tea. By age four have a sophisticated understanding of role relationships and story lines Sociodramatic play is the make-believe play with peers that first appears around age 2 1/2 and increases rapidly until during the next few years. The emergence of sociodramatic play signals an awareness that make-believe play is a representational activity. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Sociodramatic play First appears around age 2 1/2 and increases rapidly Signals an awareness that make-believe play is a representational activity. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Advantages of Make-Believe Play: More than Piaget thought Preschoolers who spend more time at sociodramatic play are advanced in general intellectual development are seen as more socially competent by their teachers. Children with imaginary friends: display more complex pretend play are advanced in mental representation are more sociable with peers. Preschoolers who spend more time at sociodramatic play are advanced in general intellectual development and are seen as more socially competent by their teachers. In the past, creating imaginary companions—invisible characters with whom children form a special relationship—was viewed as a sign of maladjustment. Yet recent research demonstrates that children who have them display more complex pretend play, are advanced in mental representation, and are more sociable with peers. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Symbol–Real World Relations Dual representation: A cup can be a cup or a hat Locate object from map of room Insight into one type of symbol–real world relation seems to help preschoolers understand others. Opportunities to learn about the functions symbols like picture books, models, maps, and drawings enhances understanding that one object can stand for another. 2-year-olds have trouble with dual representation, or viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and one with symbolic function. Insight into one type of symbol–real world relation seems to help preschoolers understand others. Providing children with many opportunities to learn about the functions of diverse symbols, such as picture books, models, maps, and drawings, enhances their understanding that one object or event can stand for another. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Preoperational Stage: 2-7 Years, Preconceptual Period (2-4 Years) A. Accomplishments 1. Symbolic Function 2. Begin Pretend Play Errors Animism Precausal or Transductive reasoning Egocentrism Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Limitations of Preoperational Thought Egocentrism Everyone else thinks, perceives and feels the same as I do Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Egocentric Conversations Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Un ejemplo de egocentrismo y centración: el problema de las 3 montañas Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The Preconceptual Period (2 to 4 Years of Age) of the Preoperational Stage Figure Piaget’s three-mountain problem. Young preoperational children are egocentric. They cannot easily assume another person’s perspective and often say that another child viewing the mountain from a different vantage point sees exactly what they see from their own location. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Child is permitted to walk around a display of three mountains. Each is distinguished by its color and by its summit. One has a red cross, another a small house ad the third a snow-capped peak. Then child stands on one side and a doll is placed at various locations around the display. The child must choose a photograph that shows what the display looks like form the doll’s perspective. Before age 6 or 7, most children select the photo that shows the mountains from their own point of view. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Egocentrism Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Egocentrism Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Limitations of Preoperational Thought Animistic Thinking Inanimate objects have lifelike qualities such as thoughts, wishes, feelings and intentions. Magical thinking Charlotte says things can disappear if they want to. It is there and then it’s not. Like magic. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Intuitive Period (4 to 7 Years of Age) Intuitive thought is an extension of preconceptual thought. Children now somewhat less egocentric Children now more proficient at classifying objects on the basis of shared perceptual attributes Children still incapable of conservation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Intuitive Period (4-7 Years) Accomplishments Errors Conservation Classification Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Limitations of Preoperational Thought Inability to Conserve Conservation is the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Inability to Conserve Understanding is centered Thinking is perception bound States rather than transformations Irreversibility Lack of hierarchical classifications Understanding is centered Focus on one aspect of a situation and ignore all others (height of liquid) Thinking is perception bound Easily distracted by concrete, perceptual appearance of objects. It looks like the short wide container has less water so there must be less water States rather than transformations Treat initial and final states of water as unrelated Lack of hierarchical classifications Cannot organize objects into classes and subclasses o the basis of similarities and differences. See class inclusion problem next Irreversibility Can’t go through a series of steps and then go backwards, returning to the starting point Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Intuitive Period (4 to 7 Years of Age) (cont.) Figure 7.6 Some common tests of the child’s ability to conserve. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Procedures Used to Test Conservation
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Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Conservation Number Keywords piaget, conservation Figures from Gray (3e) In conservation of number tests, two equivalent rows of coins are placed side by side and the child says that there is the same number in each row. Then one row is spread apart and the child is again asked if there is the same number in each. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Conservation Length In conservation of length tests, two same-length sticks are placed side by side and the child says that they are the same length. Then one is moved and the child is again asked if they are the same length. Keywords piaget, conservation Figures from Gray (3e) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Conservation Substance In conservation of substance tests, two identical amounts of clay are rolled into similar-appearing balls and the child says that they both have the same amount of clay. Then one ball is rolled out and the child is again asked if they have the same amount. Keywords piaget, conservation Figures from Gray (3e) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Intuitive Period (4-7 Years) Accomplishments Errors in Conservation: Liquid Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Intuitive Period (4-7 Years) Accomplishments Errors in Conservation : Mass Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Intuitive Period (4-7 Years) Accomplishments Errors in Conservation : AREA Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Balance Scale: An Example of Centration Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Errors in Conservation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Limitations of Preoperational Thought Falta de Habilidad para clasificar Es capaz de clasificar sobre un solo criterio pero no es capaz de relacionar la parte con el todo, como se observa en los experimentos de inclusión en clases Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Intuitive Period (4-7 Years) Accomplishments Errors Classification Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
¿Más flores o más flores amarillas? Children are shown 16 flowers, 4 of them are blue and 12 are yellow. Asked “Are their more yellow flowers or more flowers?” Preoperational child says “more yellow flowers” failing to realize that both yellow and blue flowers are included in category of flowers. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Action schemas teach the logic of reversibility.. conservation Co-ordination through reversibility Greater density = more Greater extent = more greater density/less extent less density/greater extent Logical equilibration: Action teaches transformations and necessary equivalence greater height/less width less height/greater width Without reversibility there are failures of conservation... Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Early Growth of Logic, page 106 Action teaches grouping principles and properties of inclusion and exclusion = A = B “Are there more flowers (C) or more daffodils (A) ? “ requires the simultaneous understanding of the reversible relationship that C = A + B and A = C -B See Inhelder and Piaget (1964) Early Growth of Logic, page 106 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Action teaches the nature of asymmetric relations: transitivity Co-ordination of asymmetric relations A B B C ? A > B B > C & Co-ordinating the relations requires the simultaneous understanding that B < A & B > C so that B can be inserted as the middle element in a series A > B > C Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Children co-ordinate concrete asymmetric relations from around the age of seven
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Alternativas a Piaget en el estadio preoperatorio Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Did Piaget Underestimate the Preoperational Child? New evidence on egocentrism shows that children are less egocentric when provided with less complicated visual displays. Another look at children’s causal reasoning shows that 3-year-olds do not routinely attribute life or lifelike qualities to inanimate objects. Preoperational children can conserve with training. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Criticism of Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Theory Many Piagetian problems contain confusing or unfamiliar elements or too many pieces of information for young children to handle at once. As a result, preschoolers’ responses do not reflect their true abilities. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Are Piaget’s Stages Distinct? Piaget believed that the four stages of intellectual development were discrete, and that each one represented a major reorganization in cognitive processes. More recently though researchers have shown that this conclusion is not entirely warranted. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Are Piaget’s Stages Distinct? Preoperational children can answer different versions of the conservation tasks correctly. In general, the progression between the stages appears to be gradual, so that the difference between stages may not be one of either having the ability or not; it may actually be that the younger child has the same ability but only uses it for simple tasks. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure 10.15 (a) With the standard conservation-of-number task, preoperational children answer that the lower row has more items. (b) With a simplified task, the same children say that both rows have the same number of items. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory Implications for Education: Piaget Children must discover certain concepts on their own. Children’s attention must be directed to key aspects of concepts when they are ready to learn those concepts. The teacher needs to determine the child’s level of functioning and then teach material appropriate to that level. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory Implications for Education: Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky was a Russian developmental psychologist who thought that education needed to meet children at their own level. He believed that the use of the symbolic system of language allowed humans to influence others and control our own behavior. Education needs to utilize this feature of language and take into account the child’s level of cognitive maturity. He proposed the existence of a zone of proximal development, which is the distance between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with assistance from others. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory Implications for Education: Vygotsky Vygotsky proposed the existence of a zone of proximal development, which is the distance between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with assistance from others. Instruction should occur within the zone, but appropriate guidance should be given whenever possible to bring the child to understanding of more sophisticated concepts. He compared this process to scaffolding, temporary supports used to construct a new building. These are temporary supports for the child’s cognitive processes. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com CONCEPT CHECK: According to Vygotsky, conservation might lie within the child’s zone of proximal development Who would be more optimistic about the possibility of teaching a 5 year old to understand conservation of mass? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts There may be a fundamental weakness in the assumption made by Piaget that a child either “has” or “lacks” a concept. Concepts develop gradually and may appear using some methods of testing but not others. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts Distinguishing Appearance from Reality Do children in the early preoperational stage fail to distinguish appearance from reality? It’s not entirely clear whether a child’s inability to do so has more to do with lacking a concept or inadequate language skills. Children for example may seem to confuse a rock and a sponge that looks like a rock, but when asked to bring to an adult something to wipe up spilled water, they have no problem identifying the sponge as the correct object for that purpose. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure If an experimenter hides a small toy in a small room and asks a child to find a larger toy “in the same place” in the larger room, a 21/2-year-old searches haphazardly. (a) However, the same child knows exactly where to look, if the experimenter says this is the same room as before, except that a machine has expanded it (b). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure A child sits in front of a screen covering four cups and watches as one adult hides a surprise under one of the cups. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure (cont.) A child sits in front of a screen covering four cups and watches as one adult hides a surprise under one of the cups. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Figure (cont.) Then that adult and another (who had not been present initially) point to one of the cups to signal where the surprise is hidden. Many 4-year-olds consistently follow the advice of the informed adult; 3-year-olds do not. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts Understanding Other People’s Thoughts Are young children more cognitively egocentric than adults are? What Piaget meant by this is that a child cannot easily understand the perspectives of other people. Various experiments show that preschool aged children make errors of thought that are typical of egocentric thinking. However, adults can make the same mistakes according to other studies. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com CONCEPT CHECK: Which is the clearest example of egocentric thinking? 1. An exceptionally wealthy man gives no money to charity. 2. A woman assumes that all her friends will want to see the same movie that she does. 3. At student council meeting, a student takes credit for someone else’s ideas. #2 – selfishness (1) and dishonesty (3) are not the same as egocentrism. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s structuralism Summary: The study of pre-operational to operational thought in children allowed Piaget to conclude that the ‘logic of relations’emerged around the same time across different domains This suggested that there was a new sort of mental structuring available that alters for ever the way children think and creates the perception of logical necessity Later this becomes emancipated from the concrete situations and becomes ‘formal’ thought So what happened to it ? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
From Piaget’s structuralism to modularity There were some empirical challenges Neo-Piagetians started to show a naïve logic in children younger than 7 years And earlier development of the object concept in infancy This produced a subtle shift away from Piaget’s agenda Children’s development was no longer seen in logico-mathematical terms But the main theoretical challenge came from Neo-nativism This asserted that Piaget had overlooked innate skills And that his solutions were too domain general Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Neo-nativist representational theories Intellectual growth through representational re-description of domain specific skills Annette Karmiloff-Smith Beyond Modularity MIT Press 1992 (all of it) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com A new set of questions What are the genetically pre-programmed origins of learning ? What are the subsequent developments through growth ? To what extent are cognitive skills modular and to what extent domain general ? Her book is therefore constructed around key SEPARATE behavioural domains (after Fodor’s Modularity of Mind) : each with its own type of learning Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Answer to Will’s question: some others in the Neo-nativist tradition Carey and Gelman (naïve theories and natural kinds) Gentner (analogy and metaphor) Goswami (natural reasoning) Halford (natural maturation of information processing) Johnson (neonatal perception) Spelke and Baillargeon (naïve physics) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
What are the innate structures ? It is less nativist than Fodor, but more nativist than Piaget : “When I use the term “innately specified”… I do not mean….a genetic blueprint for prespecified modules, present at birth (but)…innately specified predispositions that are more epigenetic than Fodor’s nativism” “Nature specifies initial biases or predispositions that channel attention to relevant environmental inputs, which in turn affect subsequent brain development” (page 5) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The linguistic domain Here she stresses the channel-specific ability underlying the comprehension of speech in neonates - either in innate or very rapid learning (e.g. linguistically relevant input from other acoustic signals) Grammatical development shows language-specific rules e.g. “speaked” but NOT “big he” “But such generalizations are are not made. Inferences that that children do and don’t make in language acquisition are governed by specifically linguistic principles which constrain the class of inputs open to such generalizations” (P.34/35) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The physics domain : object permanence After Piaget a wave of new evidence suggested that infants DO represent an occluded object even if they do not reach for it recent evidence comes from Baillargeon and Spelke - see page 75) The new experiments display ‘impossible’ events and measure selective looking time Infants well below ‘permanence’ age (i.e. 3.5 months) show a sensitivity to an impossible event based on the concept of an occluded object Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Baillargeon’s Object permanence task “this body of research suggests that infants store knowledge about the object world in far greater sophistication and far earlier than Piagetian theory asserts. Whether or not such computations are domain specific from the very outset or progressively become domain specific awaits more sophisticated experimentation involving brain activation” p. 67-72 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The number domain Number as a “domain-specific, innately guided process” Again habituation studies suggest innate number skills….(Antell &Keating, 1983) - see page 97 habituated to certain densities or line lengths - neonates dishabituated to new nos. with same line lengths or densities... Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The social domain Also in contra-distinction to Piaget and the view that children are late to ‘decentre’ socially, she cites evidence from early face recognition experiments that neonates preferentially attend to face-like patterns on a moving board (Johnson & Morton, 1991) - see page 119 neonates prefer these Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The notational domain K-S draws on the fact that notation itself reflects domain specificity (numbers v words) Although there is little infancy work on this, she reports carrying some out herself (see p. 142) Drawing Writing Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
How does early learning ‘scale up’? Representational redescription Despite early competence, K-S believes that development DOES undergo changes in the level of understanding or ‘reperesentation’ just like Piaget. She describes this as becoming representationally explicit The levels : Implicit Explicit 1 Explicit 2 Explicit 3 or Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The implicit level This is similar to the pre-understanding level of the S-R level of Kendler or sensorimotor level of Piaget. It allows ‘behavioural mastery’ but without awareness Information is encoded procedurally procedures are sequentially specified new representations are independently stored from one another no intra-domain or inter-domain links possible “there are many formats in which such knowledge might be represented”, p.156 Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com E1 (Explicit) level The first step towards (human) understanding is the spontaenous re-representation of a previous representation - At first this does not imply ‘awareness’ reduced descriptions of procedures in a compressed format result of re-describing I level in a higher level language component parts of procedures now available intra and inter-domain links possible Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Behavioural versus representational change E2 (explicit) This is where she distinguishes between R-R per se and making the new representation available to consciousness (though it may not be linguistically accessible) E3 As above but articulable Behavioural change Representational change age Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Evidence : from language The linguistic domain See playroom expt. (p.56) At age 3, 100% mastery Age 5, children will often pick out the boy doll Age 8/9 correct with an appropriate explanation “lend me a (une) car” Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Explanation... Interpretation : I level : “independently stored procedures for producing same phonological form” - good mapping of definite and indefinite E1 level : common phonological form linked across 2 functions (‘a’ v ‘one’ - see also production ) aware of the dual function of “une” - focus on “one” E2/E3 level : knowledge of context now available to conscious access and verbal report (and can properly justify response) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Summary : the later questions How can development be re-construed bearing in mind native competences? What are these competences ? How do they develop within domains ? How do domains of competence become interlinked? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
PAUSE FOR THOUGHT What ever happened to learning ? It had already become separated from interactionism because of the focus on ‘operations’ and what children ‘do’ on one-off tasks at different ages and stages. See: Chalmers, M. and McGonigle, B. (1997) Capturing dynamic structuralism in the laboratory In Piaget, Vygotsky and Beyond (ed. L. Smith, J. Dockrell and P. Tomlinson, Routledge, London) pp. 183-200 (first part) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Learning in the neo-nativist models Does K-S include learning mechanisms ? Yes Does she study them explicitly like Kendler ? No So how is learning incorporated into the new developmental psychology ? Through allusion to connectionist models... Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The contemporary influences K-S’s position is influenced by Piaget’s research combined with recent cognitive science and modularity of mind and, more recently, connectionism - but this has yet to fulfill its promise Cognitive science : modularity of mind Cognitive science language as structure (Fodor) 1980’s 2000’s 1956 Piagetian constructivism modularity of mind (Fodor) connectionism (McLelland) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
From learning to neo-nativism: what has been gained and what lost? Gains : a more useful conception of behavioural development from the point of view of mapping with brain function and structure questions that are less ‘epistemic’ and more to do with actual development (therefore) more focus on ‘real-life’ areas of development Losses : the focus on learning through behaving in the world (the focus is now more on internal changes in representation) paradigms that provide evidence of different levels of executive control (there are very few experiments that test the new ‘levels’ thesis explicitly) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Estadio Operatorio (7-11 años aprox.) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Características Principales Estadio Operatorio Características Principales Descentración Desarrollo de la capacidad para utilizar operaciones concretas Concepto de Operación Acción elegida (ej:ordenar) interiorizada y reversible (ej: adición-sustración), coordinada e integrada en una estructura de conjunto (ej: modelo matemático de agrupamiento). Ejemplos: una adición, medida o clasificación Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Naturaleza social de las operaciones Estadio Operatorio Naturaleza social de las operaciones Contrariamente a la mayoría de las acciones, las operaciones implican siempre, en efecto, una posibilidad de intercambio, de coordinación individual e interindividual; y ese aspecto cooperativo constituye una condición sine qua non de la objetividad de la coherencia interna (equilibrio) y de la universalidad de estas estructuras operatorias (Piaget, J. y Inhelder, B (1969). Psicología del niño. Madrid. Morata, p.98) ..el término social debe ser entendido de manera amplia como transmisiones educativas, culturales o morales, p.99) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Reglas lógicas fundamentales de la génesis Estadio Operatorio Reglas lógicas fundamentales de la génesis de las operaciones concretas I - Las operaciones consisten en transformaciones reversibles Reversibilidad II - Una transformación operatoria es siempre relativa a un invariante, como el esquema o noción de conservación Noción de conservación Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Reglas lógicas fundamentales de la génesis las operaciones I Las operaciones consisten en transformaciones reversibles Reciprocidad A corresponde a B y viceversa Juan es mayor que Manuel Manuel es menor que Juan Reversibilidad Inversión (A – A = 0) Compensacion Toda operación posee su contraria Los cambios en una característica son compensados por cambios en otras características. Por ej: El ancho por el alto en un vaso de agua Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Noción de conservación Reglas lógicas fundamentales de la génesis de las operaciones II Una transformaciones operatoria es siempre relativa a un invariante, como el esquema o noción de conservación Noción de conservación (ej: objeto permanenente, líquidos, materia, número) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Tipos de Operaciones Cognitivas (Martí, 1990) Estadio Operatorio Lógico Matemáticas Infralógicas Lógicas Clases Clasificación. Ej: flores del mismo color. Adición partitiva. Ej:disolución de un azucarillo en agua. ¿La cantidad de líquido y peso permanecen constantes? Relaciones Seriación. Ej: ordenar bastones de menor a mayor. Orden (espacial y temporal). Ej: Ante la rotación de un bastoncillo con perlas. ¿Orden de aparición? Numéricas Sistema numérico Ej: conservación del número.Cálculo: suma, resta, multiplicación. Medida Ej.: El niño debe construir una torre de igual altura que la del modelo pero con restricciones distintas. Moral Operar con valores Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com ¿Cómo se estructuran los diferentes tipos de operaciones? La operación es una acción coordinada e integrada en una estructura de conjunto. Piaget propone que los diferentes tipos de operaciones (cuantitativas y cualitativas) se pueden estructurar en el desarrollo genético del niño a través de una estructura lógica: Los AGRUPAMIENTOS Los agrupamientos son estructuras lógicas semejantes pero no idénticas a los “grupos” matemáticos. Son una combinación de la estructura del grupo y del retículo (modelo pseudomatemático de agrupamiento) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Las 5 Propiedades de Los Agrupamientos Combinación o composición Dos operaciones de un conjunto constituyen por su reunión una nueva operación del conjunto. (x+x´= y). Ej: niños + niñas = niños. Niños + adultos= humamos. Los niños son también humanos. Reversibilidad Cada operación puede invertirse. (a-b=c; a-c=b) Asociatividad Expresa la posibilidad psicológica de obtener el mismo resultado por dos caminos diferentes (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) Identidad La composición de toda operación con su inversa culmina en una “operación idéntica general” (a-a=0; a+0=a). Equivale a la anulación de la operación. Tautología Una acción cuando se repite no añade nada nuevo a la clase. Ej: niños + niños =niños. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
¿Cuántos tipos de agrupamientos propone Piaget? Estadio Operatorio ¿Cuántos tipos de agrupamientos propone Piaget? Propone 9 agrupamientos diferentes que describen la estructura cognitiva de este periodo: 1 agrupamiento preliminar y 8 mayores. De los 8 mayores, 4 referidos a la lógica de clases (ej:clasificación) y 4 a la lógica de las relaciones (ej:seriación). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
¿Por qué son los más significativos? Estadio Operatorio Los conceptos más significativos del pensamiento operatorio según Piaget (1969) Reversibilidad Conservación Clasificación Seriación. Número ¿Por qué son los más significativos? Porque Piaget los considera indispensable para operar lógicamente a nivel cuantitativo y cualitativo; para comprender el concepto de unidad y de número; y para poder operar con números Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Todas las operaciones requieren de la noción de conservación Estadio Operatorio La evolución de las nociones de conservacion, clasificación y seriación La Conservación Todas las operaciones requieren de la noción de conservación 1- No existe conservación 2- Tendencia a aceptar la conservación, pero entra en conflicto con la percepción. 3- Adquisición de la noción Edades de adquisición: Materia (7-8), peso (9), Volumen (11). (ver diapositivas del periodo preoperatorio) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Estadio Operatorio Operaciones lógicas que implica la noción de Conservación (ver propiedades del agrupamiento) 1- Reversibilidad por inversión. Ej: un objeto que ha cambiado de forma puede volver su forma original por una acción contraria. A-A=0 2 – Compensación 3 – El concepto de identidad Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Estadio Operatorio La Clasificación Pertenece a la lógica-matemática de clases. Referida a la categorización de la realidad 1- Etapa de las colecciones figurales. Simple reunión espacial. 2 – El niño sabe clasificar por un atributo. Por ej: color. 3 – El niño es capaz de utilizar diferentes clases. Por ej: clasificar por forma y color. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Estadio Operatorio La Seriación Pertenece a la lógica-matemática de clases. Permite ordenar la realidad de forma creciente o decreciente 1 – Ausencia de correspondencia entre elementos 1,2,3,4,5,6,… A-1;b-2;c-3;…. A,b,c,d,e,f,… 2 – Correspondencia término a término por ensayo y error. 3 – Coordinación sistemática de las relaciones en juego. Dominio de la reversibilidad y la reciprocidad. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
El número y las nociones operatorias implicadas en el mismo Estadio Operatorio El número y las nociones operatorias implicadas en el mismo Reversibilidad, Conservación, Clasificación, Seriación. El número es una síntesis de la cardinalidad y la ordinalidad que implica el dominio de la inclusión de clases. Para Piaget, el número junto con las operaciones lógicas que supone es la forma más esencial y central de la ASIMILACIÓN INTELECTUAL Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Referencias Bibliográficas Bermejo, V. (1994). Desarrollo Cognitivo. Madrid. Síntesis. Palacios, J. , Marchesi, A. y Coll, C. (1990): Desarrollo psicológico y educación I. Psicología Evolutiva.. Madrid. Alianza. Piaget,J (1987?) Introducción a la Epistemología Genética. Vol I. El pensamiento matemático. Mexico D.F.. Paidos Piaget,J, y Inhelder, B.(1984), Psicologia del niño, Madrid. Morata. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Diapositivas complementarias del estadio operatorio A continuación se recopilan diferentes diapositivas que complementan y clarifican el desarrollo anterior y proceden de fuentes diferentes. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Key Questions What changes between early and middle childhood in the way that children think? What changes between early and middle childhood in the way that they are treated? What do we ask 8-year-olds to do that we do not ask 4-year-olds to do? How is the day of a 7-year-old different from the day of a 3-year-old? How was your middle childhood different from your parents? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Biological Changes Become much more physically coordinated and strong Sex differences in strength widen Brain maturation Alpha activity (active) becomes more common than theta (sleep-like) Further development of frontal lobes Greater ability to regulate emotions Greater ability to engage in planning, self-reflection Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com What changes: Piaget He considered this to be a period of development between child-like and adult-like thinking Kids move from preoperational thinking to concrete operational thinking? What does this mean? Ability to classify along two dimensions, hierarchically Veggies I hate Food Veggies I like Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Characteristics of Concrete Operational Thinking Changes in outward appearance don’t change overall amount Identity Changes in one feature are compensated by changes in other features Compensation One operation will negate, or reverse, another Reversibility Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 Years Génesis de las operaciones concretas Logical Reasoning. Noción de operación: 1.1Noción de Reversibiidad 1.2 Noción de Conservación Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 Years Accomplishments Logical Reasoning Reversibility Seriation Transitivity B. Still having trouble…. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
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Del pensamiento preoperatorio al pensamiento operatorio Descentración frente a centración Realidad inferida frente a apariencia Reversibilidad frente a irreversibilidad Transformaciones frente a estados finales. En suma, este tránsito supone la adquisición de OPERACIONES Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Estadio de las operaciones concretas Las acciones mentales se vuelven operaciones mentales: se coordinan entre sí, se distancian del presente inmediato y se hacen reversibles Operación: acciones interiorizadas organizadas en sistemas de conjunto Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Estadio de las operaciones concretas El pensamiento se vuelve más lógico, inferencial y menos dependiente del aquí y del ahora. Ha adquirido la noción de conservación Conservación del peso Conservación de la sustancia Conservación del volumen Las operaciones pueden combinarse entre sí y conducir a una nueva operación. Tipos de operaciones: Clasificación Seriación .... Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) Some examples of concrete-operational thought Conservation by decentering and using reversibility Relational logic using mental seriation (the ability to mentally arrange items along a quantifiable dimension such as height or weight) and transitivity (the necessary relations among elements in a series) The sequencing of concrete operations Horizontal decalage: Some forms of conservation are understood much sooner than others. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) Figure 7.7 Children’s performance on a simple seriation task. If asked to arrange a series of sticks from shortest to longest, preoperational children often line up one end of the sticks and create an incomplete ordering (a) or order them so the top of each successive stick extends higher than the preceding stick (b). Concrete operators, by contrast, can use the inverse cognitive operations greater than (>) and less than (<) to quickly make successive comparisons and create a correct serial ordering. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
De la inteligencia sensoriomotora a las operaciones concretas Preoperatoria Operaciones Concretas Acciones observables Acciones interiorizadas: intuiciones Acc. interior. en sistemas: operaciones Esquemas prácticos Esquemas representacio-nales Esquemas operatorios Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Period 1 Coordinate sensations with motor actions Symbolic thought gradually develops – ex) mental image of a toy Object Permanence – associated with symbolic thought – object still exists even though not visible Period 2 Symbolic thought continues to develop Shortcomings of this Period: inability to understand CONSERVATION Task b/c of following processes: SLIDE 21 Centration – focus on a single aspect of the problem Irreversibility – can not mentally undo a task Egocentricism – limited ability to understand others perspective Period 3 Can perform operations on tangible objects / actual events because now have capacity for Reversibility – mentally undo task Decentration – view all aspects of a problem – therefore less egocentric Period 4 Apply operations to ABSTRACT concepts – problem solving, notions of justice, love, etc. Logic and Reason - No longer rely on trial and error Criticisms: (1) Underestimated abilities – ex) develop object permanence around 3 -4 months (2) “Mixing” of Stages – may display characteristics of several different stages at one time (3) Timetable that children follow in passing through these stages varies considerably among cultures Figure Piaget’s stage theory. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four stages marked by fundamentally different modes of thinking through which youngsters evolve. The approximate age norms and some key characteristics of thought at each stage are summarized here. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Alternativas a Piaget en el estadio operatorio o de la lógica concreta (7-11 aprox) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Alternativas y complementos a la teoría de Piaget en el estadio operatorio Los desfases horizontales Siegler y el problema de la balanza Teoria del procesamiento de la información Teoría Sociocultural: Vygotski Desarrollo de la memoria Influencias culturales Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Los estudios de replicación posteriores a Piaget Piaget no da cuenta de las restricciones que imponen los contenidos específicos DESFASES HORIZONTALES Logros que responden a la misma estructuración cognitiva (por ej., las conservaciones) se adquieren en momentos temporales distintos. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Los desfases horizontales Posibles explicaciones acerca de su existencia: Piaget no tiene en cuenta la importancia del contenido. Piaget plantea un cambio cualitativo y muy brusco entre la etapa preoperatoria y operatoria, cuando probablemente se trata de una cambio más progresivo y gradual. Influencia de la CULTURA, se trata de un factor que modula lo que se desarrolla y cómo se desarrolla. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Information Processing View: Siegler’s Balance-Beam Study Rule 1: Balance based strictly on weight, no regard for distance Rule 2: Side with more weight goes down. If weights equal, side with weights furthest from fulcrum will go down Rule 3: Must consider both weight and distance. If these two elements are in conflict (more weight on one side, distance on other), no rule Rule 4: Take rule 3 a little bit further, understanding that torque equals weight times distance Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Balance Scale: 4 rules (Siegler) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Notes about the balance-beam study: Information Processing vs. Constructivism Found that in some cases, kids would be correct more often using less sophisticated rules (e.g., saying side with most weight goes down following rules 1 or 2 in the conflict-weight problem but would only get it right if they got a lucky guess using rule 3). **Cannot fit in Piaget’s theory because according to his theory, more sophisticated thinking cannot lead to less correctness** Note that rule 4 is a formal operations rule—not many people get it. Siegler proposed that the primary problem is one of encoding, focusing on only certain features and ignoring others. Note the role of training, domain specificity of theory. Different from Piaget. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Developmental Changes in the Processing of Information Acquisition Frequency Speed Accuracy Automaticity Range Prior Knowledge Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Information-Processing Perspective Focuses on the mind as a system, analogous to a computer, for analyzing information from the environment Developmental improvements reflect increased capacity of working memory faster speed of processing new algorithims (methods) more stored knowledge Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Emphasized the child’s interaction with the social world (other people) as a cause of development Vygotsky believed language to be the foundation for social interaction and thought Piaget believed language was a byproduct of thought Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Vygotsky - children learn from interactions with other people Zone of proximal development - what a child can do by interacting with another person, but can’t do alone. Critical thinking based on dialouge with others who challenge ideas Piaget - focused on children’s interaction with the physical world Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Memory Development Capacity: Memory span increases during middle childhood. One possible reason: Brain maturation. A more plausible, better supported reason: more speed. Can’t remember more pieces, just process them more quickly. Knowledge base: Prior information on which to call to aid in memory; add context Memory strategies: deliberate attempts to aid memory. rehearsal (space helmet study) grouping (older kids make better spontaneous groups) Note impact of training—contrary to Piaget Metamemory: knowledge of memory abilities. Young kids terrible at it. Think they can remember everything, even with little practice. metamemory needed to apply strategies. Just knowing strategies not enough. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Cultural Variations Concrete operations: Early studies found delay in rate, level of attainment of operations in some cultures When retested with more familiar tasks, in own language, with training, did better. Still a delay, but performed better eventually. Universality of concrete operations confirmed, but not at same ages universally. Memory studies show grouping is better among schooled than non-schooled children. Important to note that most cross-cultural studies conducted by psychologists use standardized measures. Often, the measures have been standardized on western samples using western methods. This is not a good idea, as results can differ by culture due to methodology. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com There is an interesting shift in the way children are treated when they move into early childhood. In industrialized societies, this often is the time that children enter school. In pre-industrial societies, this is often a time that children take on more responsibilities, such as working and helping with childcare. In all societies, children are given much more responsibility in middle childhood, owing mostly to the noticeable shift in their mental abilities. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Sternberg (2003: 473) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Critique of Piaget’s Theory Underestimates children’s abilities Overestimates age differences in thinking Vagueness about the process of change Underestimates the role of the social environment Lack of evidence for qualitatively different stages Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com El estadio de las operaciones formales: el pensamiento abstracto según Piaget (11 aprox. - ) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Adolescent Cognition Piaget’s Theory: Adolescent was in formal operational stage of cognition where thought is more abstract & adolescents are no longer limited to actual, concrete experiences as anchors for thought They can now conjure up make-believe situations & events that are hypothetical possibilities & then try to reason logically about them In this stage: adolescent has ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses to solve problems as in algebraic equation They systematically deduce, or conclude best path to follow in solving equation Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Challenge to Piaget’s formal Operational Stage There is much more individual variation than what he envisioned Indeed, it is estimated than only 1 out of 3 young adolescents is a formal operational thinker, and many American adults never become such thinkers Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Adolescent Egocentrism Heightened self-consciousness of adolescents which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are & in their sense of personal uniqueness David Elkind proposes two types of social thinking: imaginary audience: a belief that they are ‘on stage’ and that their every act is being viewed by an imaginary audience personal fable: sense of uniqueness making them feel that no one can understand them Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Information Processing in Adolescents Ability to process information improves in areas of memory, decision making critical thinking & self-regulatory learning Robert Sternberg found that solving problems, such as analogies, requires individuals to make continued comparisons between newly encoded information & previously encoded information Adolescents probably have more storage space in short-term memory Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Adolescent Cognitive Capacities Adolescents have: Increased speed, automaticity & capacity of information processing More breadth of content knowledge, Increased ability to construct new combinations of knowledge Greater range for applying or obtaining knowledge Capacity to set goals for extending knowledge Awareness of their emotional makeup to: periodically monitor their progress, fine-tune their strategies, evaluate obstacles & make adaptations Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL PENSAMIENTO DE LOS ADOLESCENTES I Se sientan las bases del funcionamiento cognitivo de las operaciones formales (Piaget e Inhelder) Características: Subordinación de lo real a lo posible: pueden considerar los datos inmediatos pero también elaborar conjeturas e hipótesis. Son capaces de prever diferentes soluciones o alternativas´La no dependencia de lo real les permite comprender fenómenos y acontecimientos alejados de ellos en el espacio y en el tiempo. Pensamiento proposicional: posibilidad de usar lenguajes abstractos, de entender y producir enunciados sobre situaciones reales o imaginadas. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL PENSAMIENTO DE LOS ADOLESCENTES II Razonamiento hipotético deductivo: es capaz de formular hipótesis, compararlas y someterlas a comprobación para obtener conclusiones y deducciones. Control sistemático de las variables: es capaz de analizar los factores o variables para poder concluir cual fue la causante del problema. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL PENSAMIENTO DE LOS ADOLESCENTES III acceso al pensamiento científico: las características anteriores les preparan poder proceder de una forma científica cuando se enfrentan a los problemas y opiniones (procedimientos y estrategias para producir hipótesis o falsearlas, argumentar a favor o en contra, contrastar opiniones con datos empíricos...) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL PENSAMIENTO DE LOS ADOLESCENTES IV logran el dominio de los esquemas operacionales formales como la combinatoria, las proposiciones, la correlación, la probabilidad, el equilibrio mecánico y la coordinación del doble sistema de referencia (Por ej: pueden tener en cuenta una ley física, la de la velocidad, y su experiencia real con las bicicletas). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL PENSAMIENTO DE LOS ADOLESCENTES V acceso a la metacognición: conocimiento sobre los propios procesos de pensamiento (conciencia de sus propias habilidades, capacidades…) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Pensamiento postformal (Labouvi-Vief): mayor grado de relativismo cognitivo, pensamiento dialéctico, capacidad de autorregulación cognitiva, capacidad metasistémica (coordinación sistemas abstractos). Aspectos criticados sobre el pensamiento formal: no es un sistema uniforme y homogéneo; el razonamiento se ve afectado por principios lógicos pero también por aspectos pragmáticos y funcionales y numerosas variables contextuales; sólo la mitad de la población llega a dominar las operaciones formales. Consecuencias educativas (el pensamiento formal no es un estadio natural): contextos de aprendizaje, ricos, estimulantes, variados, complejos; aprendizaje cooperativo; factores sociales y ambientales; influencia de las ideas previas; aprender a aprender… Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and Up) Mental actions performed on ideas and propositions. Can reason logically about hypothetical processes and events that may have no basis in reality. Deductive reasoning Does everyone reach this stage? Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Formal-Operational Stage (11 to 12 Years and Beyond) Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Thinking like a scientist Personal and social implications of formal thought Paves the way for thinking about what is possible in one's life Questioning begins about everything from parental authority to government spending Formal operational thought is reached very slowly, if at all. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com What characterize the thought processes of a typical adolescent from the view of Jean Piaget? Think more abstractly, thinking independently of concrete objects. Become more idealistic in thought, considering what is possible. Can use hypothetical-deductive reasoning How is formal operations different from concrete operations? Children with concrete operational thinking must manipulate concrete items or specific details in order to solve problems. Youths with formal operational thinking can manipulate symbols, and even symbols for symbols (like in algebra, where a letter symbol can be used to represent a number symbol). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
What characterize formal operational thinking? Solve algebraic problems and understand metaphors (manipulate symbols for symbols). Solve probability problems (roll 2 dice, how many ways to come up with 6?). Reflect on their own thoughts (metacognition). Recognize the possibility of multiple causes for events. Simultaneously consider more than one possible outcome. Understand sarcasm. Handle many possibilities and systematically check them out Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Inhelder and Piaget’s Pendulum Problem The task is to compare the motions of longer and shorter strings, with lighter and heavier weights attached, in order to determine the influence of weight, string length, and dropping point on the time it takes for the pendulum to swing back and forth Children below age 12 usually perform unsystematic experiments and draw incorrect conclusions Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com Alternativas a Piaget en el estadio de las operaciones formales (11 aprox. - ) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
An Evaluation of Piaget's Theory Piaget's contributions Founded the field of cognitive development Convinced us that children are curious, active explorers of their environment First to try to explain and not just describe the process of development Challenges to Piaget Piaget failed to distinguish competence from performance. Still a hotly debated topic: Does cognitive development really occur in stages? Does Piaget "explain" cognitive development? His explanations raise more questions than they answer. Piaget devoted too little attention to social and cultural influences. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Role of Culture in Intellectual Development Vygotsky's four interrelated levels of analysis Microgenetic: Refers to changes that occur over relatively brief periods of time Ontogenetic: Development of an individual over his or her lifetime Phylogenetic: Changes over evolutionary time Sociohistorical: Changes that have occurred in one's culture, and the values, norms, and technologies generated throughout history Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Role of Culture in Intellectual Development (cont.) Infants are born with the following tools of intellectual adaptation Attention Sensation Perception Memory Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies and the Zone of Proximal Development Learning occurs within the context of cooperative, or collaborative, dialogues between a skillful tutor and a novice pupil. The zone of proximal development The difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner "Scaffolding" is the tendency of more expert participants to carefully tailor the support they provide to the novice learner's current situation. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com The Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies and the Zone of Proximal Development (cont.) Apprenticeship in thinking and guided participation (Rogoff) Children's cognitions are shaped as they take part, alongside adults or other more skillful associates, in everyday culturally relevant experiences. Our culture encourages context-independent learning (learning and discussing things that have no immediate relevance). Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
Implications for Education Active learning in the classroom Cooperative learning exercises Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Role of Language in Cognitive Development Piaget's theory of language and thought Egocentric, self-directed speech merely reflects the child's ongoing mental activity and does not play a role in a child's cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory of language and thought Nonsocial utterances illustrate the transition from prelinguistic to verbal reasoning. Self-directed monologues occur more during problem solving. Private speech helps young children plan strategies and regulate their behavior. Which viewpoint should we endorse? Vygotsky's theory is more widely held today. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
The Role of Language in Cognitive Development (cont.) Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com
An Evaluation of Piaget's Theory Piaget's contributions Founded the field of cognitive development Convinced us that children are curious, active explorers of their environment First to try to explain and not just describe the process of development Challenges to Piaget Piaget failed to distinguish competence from performance. Still a hotly debated topic: Does cognitive development really occur in stages? Does Piaget "explain" cognitive development? His explanations raise more questions than they answer. Piaget devoted too little attention to social and cultural influences. Comentarios y aportaciones nuevas a: jopriet@gmail.com